The misinformation effect happens when a person's recall of episodic memories becomes less accurate because of post-event information. In the third part of this series on the psychology of misinformation, we cover the psychological concepts that are relevant to the prevention of misinformation. The proportion of scene items recalled was then analyzed using a 3 (initial test: 0 vs. 1 vs. 2) × 2 (delay: 0 vs. 48 hours) between‐subjects ANOVA. by Bence Bago, David G. Rand and George Pennycook, (preprint) in 2019. As you’ll have seen from the psychology of correcting misinformation, prevention is preferable to cure. In the testing effect literature, repeated initial testing is more effective when tests are spaced over equal intervals rather than massed (Karpicke & Roediger, 2007). This effect is particularly important in the forensic context as exposing a witness to misinformation may adversely affect the content of their testimony. A new paper by Ecker et al. “Explicit warnings reduce but do not eliminate the continued influence of misinformation”, by Ullrich K.H. We replicated the finding of a PET pattern on source monitoring by Huff et al. Bars reflect standard error, By continuing to browse this site, you agree to its use of cookies as described in our, I have read and accept the Wiley Online Library Terms and Conditions of Use, Reevaluating the potency of the memory conformity effect, The effects of free recall testing on subsequent source memory, Questioning the acceptability of the cognitive interview to improve its use, Semantic information activated during retrieval contributes to later retention: Support for the mediator effectiveness hypothesis of the testing effect, Intended and unintended effects of explicit warnings on eyewitness suggestibility: Evidence from source identification tests, Paradoxical effects of testing: Retrieval enhances both accurate recall and suggestibility in eyewitnesses, The dark side of testing memory: Repeated retrieval can enhance eyewitness suggestibility, The testing effect in recognition memory: A dual process account, Recall a witnessed event increases eyewitness suggestibility: The reversed testing effect, Retrieval can increase or decrease suggestibility depending on how the memory is tested: The importance of source complexity, The origin of the interaction between learning method and delay in the testing effect: The roles of processing and retrieval organization, Memory‐enhancing techniques for investigative interviewing: The cognitive interview. If poor performance on the initial tests induced a conservative response bias, we may have underestimated the potential benefits of initial testing on the final source test. Our study aimed to establish whether initial testing reliably improves memory accuracy (i.e., a PET pattern) in the social contagion paradigm, given the preponderance of the RES pattern in nonsocial misinformation paradigms. We're using cookies to improve your experience. Why does our psychology make misinformation so hard to correct? Misinformation and its Correction: Cognitive Mechanisms and Recommendations for Mass Communication”, by Briony Swire and Ullrich K.H. To reduce the exposure of people to misinformation online, fact-checkers manually verify the veracity of claims made in content shared online. Initial retrieval of an event can reduce people's susceptibility to misinformation. These recall tests were then photocopied and organized into packets of 30 recall tests ostensibly completed by five other participants from a previous experiment. Researchers have long sought to discover effective methods for improving memory accuracy. Regardless, these ‘costs’ of initial testing are a reminder of the importance of examining how manipulations influence both false and correct memory in false memory paradigms (e.g., Gunter, Ivanko, & Bodner, 2005; Huff et al., 2015). Completing multiple memory tests has been found to improve memory accuracy relative to a single test (Karpicke & Roediger, 2007). Participants classified their memory for each item as scene (item was in the original scene), other (item was on the other participants' recall tests), both (item was in the original scene and on the other participants' recall tests), or neither. In contrast, participants likely deem memory information provided by social sources as fallible, as is true of their own memory, and therefore may deem that information less credible. The “continued influence effect” of misinformation is not limited to jurors. First, we evaluated whether the PET pattern is enhanced when participants complete more than one initial recall test. Inoculation has been found to be effective in reducing belief in conspiracy theories and increasing belief in scientific consensus on climate change. The misinformation effect, discussed by Levine and Loftus in their article on eyewitness testimony, is an important example.They show how the wording of a question can lead to the intrusion of non-existent elements into reports of memory. A p < .05 significance level was used except as noted. Medical journals are in a unique position to solicit and publish research on medical misinformation and coordinate topics to focus the public’s attention and inform medical education, yet counteracting false claims requires an across-the-board response, Drs. We've relied for too long on an outdated top-down view of disinformation. To reduce the dissemination, the reflective system should be strengthened. An important and novel finding was that delayed exposure to contagion items also produced a PET pattern on free recall: Initial testing made participants less likely to freely report contagion items. In the misinformation paradigm, participants are exposed to misleading details about a previous event. Misleading information was provided by an implied social source—the review of recall sheets ostensibly from other participants that included non‐studied ‘contagion’ items. They then reviewed a set of fake recall tests ostensibly completed by previous participants. The misinformation effect refers to the finding that exposure to misleading information presented between the encoding of an event and its subsequent recall causes impairment in memory. We expected that increasing the number of exposures to contagion items would increase false recall and false source attributions (Mitchell & Zaragoza, 1996). Yet little research has been undertaken on techniques that could protect eyewitnesses from the influence of misinformation, despite the dangerous consequences of distorted testimony. We first consider why taking two (versus one) initial recall tests failed to yield a larger PET pattern. Each scene displayed objects (M = 23.83) frequently listed by 18 additional undergraduates who listed items they would expect to see in each scene. (2013), in contrast, the misinformation (contagion items) were always additive (i.e., not in the scenes) rather than contradictory (i.e., contradicting specific objects in the scenes; Frost, 2000; Nemeth & Belli, 2006). Further, misinformation encountered socially is likely a common source in eyewitness events (Paterson & Kemp, 2006)—perhaps more so than exposure to detailed experimenter‐prepared narratives generally used in misinformation paradigms. What to read next: “Fake news, fast and slow: Deliberation reduces belief in false (but not true) news headlines” by Bence Bago, David G. Rand and George Pennycook, (preprint) in 2019. In our work using the social‐contagion‐of‐memory paradigm (present study; Huff et al., 2013), initial testing has typically had protective effects on memory, rather than increasing the misinformation effect. E‐mail: mhuff@wustl.edu, mjhuff16@gmail.com, Department of Psychology, University of Calgary, Calgary, Alberta, Canada. This question is important from an applied perspective, given that free recall shares similar characteristics with the cognitive interview used in forensic settings (Fisher & Geiselman, 1992). Read the first, “The psychology of misinformation: Why we’re vulnerable”, and the second, “The psychology of misinformation: Why it’s so hard to correct”. When it comes to building resilience to misinformation, nudges generally try to prompt analytic thinking. © 2015 The Authors. At the most basic level, the Una Hakika model can impart lasting changes in how communities address unverified information and knowledge of the damaging effects of misinformation on community security, personal safety, and economic stability. This is the third in our series on the psychology of misinformation. To help delineate the conditions that yield a PET pattern, we used two manipulations that have increased the beneficial effects of testing on correct memory in other paradigms. Contagion items were provided from the four remaining writers. In 2010, misinformation researcher Ullrich Ecker and colleagues found that warning people about the effects of misinformation, such as the continued influence effect, can make them more alert. Working off-campus? The remaining interactions were not significant, Fs < 1. This study experimentally explored the impact of misinformation about climate change and tested several pre-emptive interventions designed to reduce … Either immediately or following a 48‐hour delay, they then completed the social contagion phase in which they reviewed a set of recall tests ostensibly completed by other participants to expose them to non‐presented contagion items. Testing benefits have also been found to increase with delay, once more forgetting of the initial event has occurred (Roediger & Karpicke, 2006). The fact that stress reduced the misinformation effect therefore seems to suggest that stress has favorable effects on eyewitness testimony. They were told they would view a series of household scenes, and their memory for the items in the scenes would later be tested. Figure 3 captures this interaction. It might involve taking a moment to calm down before sharing a shocking but false post. After studying six household scenes (e.g., a bathroom), participants attempted to recall items from the scenes zero, one, or two times. Below we consider the theoretical and applied implications of our findings. So to reduce the effects of false information, people should try to reduce its visibility. Chan, Thomas, and Bulevich (2009) sought to reduce the harmful effects of misinformation on eyewitness memory by having participants recall details of the witnessed event prior to misinformation exposure. There was again an effect of contagion exposure, F(2, 420) = 23.40, MSE = 0.05, ηp2 = 0.10. As was true of recall of contagion items, the effect of initial testing on source judgments interacted with delay, F(2, 210) = 21.82, MSE = 0.14, ηp2 = 0.05. This pleasantness task was used to promote attention to the items in the fake tests. [36] One participant was replaced for not following test instructions, and eight were replaced in the delay condition because of attrition. This can help you avoid misinformation down the line. Social interactions can simultaneously enhance and distort memories: Evidence from a collaborative recognition task. The present article examined whether such retrieval practice can enhance memory accuracy in a social contagion misinformation paradigm that elicits high rates of memory errors. Thus, taking either one or two initial tests yielded a robust PET pattern on recall—the first time a PET has been reported on this memory test. Recently, Pansky and Tenenboim (2011) reported that initial testing of highly specific verbatim details of a witnessed crime reduced suggestibility relative to initial testing of broad gist‐based details (cf. We explored whether protective effects of initial testing could be obtained on final free recall and source‐monitoring tests. Additive misinformation, as presented in our social contagion phase, may have operated similarly to misleading questions in this respect given the absence of a detectable contradiction. Moreover, the PET pattern on delayed recall, and on source monitoring at both retention intervals, was similar whether contagion items were suggested one or four times. Effect sizes for significant comparisons were calculated using partial eta squared (ηp2) for analyses of variance (ANOVAs), and Cohen's d for t‐tests. When it comes to building resilience to misinformation, nudges generally try to prompt analytic thinking. Armstrong and Naylor wrote. Eyewitnesses are likely exposed to misinformation multiple times prior to providing their testimony. In traditional misinformation experiments (and in all studies reporting the RES pattern), misinformation is presented via experimenter‐prepared materials such as detailed summaries to which eyewitnesses are unlikely to be exposed. Misinformation reaches millions of people within seconds who are closely connected in networked webs created by sharing, liking, forwarding, and posting. The logic was that because testing enhances memory retention of the original event (Roediger & Karpicke, 2006a), taking a What to read next: “Fighting COVID-19 misinformation on social media: Experimental evidence for a scalable accuracy nudge intervention” by George Pennycook, Jonathan McPhetres, Yunhao Zhang, Jackson G. Lu, and David G. Rand, (preprint) in 2020. You know you did your best to gain as much information as possible. Within each delay condition, participants were randomly assigned to the zero, one, or two initial test conditions. Critically, the effect of initial testing on contagion recall interacted with delay, F(2, 210) = 6.44, MSE = 0.08, ηp2 = 0.06. Stating that the misinformation was false through a denial had a limited effect on reducing false belief, while presenting a causal explanation eliminated the misperceptions caused by the rumor. Roy S. Malpass, Jane Goodman-Delahunty, in Encyclopedia of Applied Psychology, 2004. How can you use WhatsApp in your reporting, and what practical and ethical issues should you consider? Following Huff et al. Groups of up to six participants were tested. Ecker, published in Misinformation and Mass Audiences in 2018. Other factors likely also contribute to whether a PET pattern or RES pattern occurs. Five colleagues handwrote one recall test for each of the six scenes. However, this cost was not found in free recall, where initial testing instead benefitted recall on both immediate and delayed tests. Likewise, Memon, Zaragoza, Clifford, and Kidd (2010) found that completing the cognitive interview before (versus after) exposure to misleading details also reduced suggestibility (see also Gabbert, Hope, Fisher, & Jamieson, 2012). The misinformation effect happens when a person's memory becomes less accurate due to information that happens after the event. In eyewitness situations, there is typically a gap between the event and reports (and between the event and subsequent testimony, of course). Each of six sheets listed the scene name at the top, and participants had 2 minutes to recall its objects. However, taking two initial tests was not more beneficial than taking one (0.35 vs. 0.36), t < 1. Participants were exposed to each contagion item zero, one, or four times across the set of fake recall tests. Immediately or after a 48‐hour delay, non‐presented items (e.g., soap and toothbrush) were exposed zero, one, or four times through a social contagion manipulation in which participants reviewed sets of recall tests ostensibly provided by other participants. University of Calgary undergraduates (N = 216; 36 per cell) participated for course credit. Enhanced encoding can reduce the misinformation effect (e.g., Lane, 2006; Pezdek & Roe, 1995), as can increasing memory monitoring at test by requiring participants to specify the source of reported details via a source‐monitoring test (e.g., Lindsay & Johnson, 1989). Taking more than a few more seconds to think can help you spot misinformation. Thus, if initial testing protects memory from misinformation by increasing correct memory, then increasing the number of initial tests should reduce misinformation effects by further increasing correct memory. A lenient scoring criterion was adopted such that misspellings and synonyms of scene items (e.g., ‘pan’ would be counted for ‘pot’ for the kitchen scene) were both counted. The contagion phase was modeled after Huff et al. Emotional skepticism is an awareness of potential manipulation through your emotions. Misattributions were less frequent after one than zero tests (0.46 vs. 0.68), t(142) = 6.27, SEM = 0.03, d = 1.05, and after two than zero tests (0.50 vs. 0.68), t(142) = 5.10, SEM = 0.03, d = 0.86. In the delay test condition, taking either one or two tests reduced misattributions relative to the zero‐test group (0.43 vs. 0.73, 0.46 vs. 0.73), t(70) = 5.36, SEM = 0.04, d = 1.28, and t(70) = 6.07, SEM = 0.04, d = 1.45, respectively, whereas misattributions were equivalent after one or two tests (0.43 vs. 0.46), t < 1. In the social contagion paradigm of Huff et al. Telling a good story: The effects of memory retrieval and context processing on eyewitness suggestibility. They analyzed 271 online survey responses from a sample of students at a … Consistent with these beneficial effects of testing, some studies have found that initial testing reduces the misinformation effect. In contrast, in the delayed condition, contagion recall was lower after one than zero tests (0.28 vs. 0.43), t(70) = 3.85, SEM = 0.03, d = 0.92, lower after two than zero tests (0.24 vs. 0.43), t(70) = 5.54, SEM = 0.03, d = 1.32, but was again equivalent after two or one tests (0.24 vs. 0.28), t(70) = 1.31, SEM = 0.03, p = .19. 3.1 The Misinformation Effect. As you’ll have seen from, the psychology of correcting misinformation. The zero‐test group performed this filler task for 12 additional minutes, whereas the one‐test and two‐test groups completed a free recall test for each scene. In fact, by accepting the possibility to not get the full picture, you gain control over your reaction to this fact. It is the opposite of fluency. Contagion items were always written in serial positions four and six, and correct items were randomly placed in the remaining list positions. The effects of repeatedly recalling a traumatic event on eyewitness memory and suggestibility. The psychology of misinformation — the mental shortcuts, confusions, and illusions that encourage us to believe things that aren’t true — can tell us a lot about how to prevent its harmful effects. Table 1 provides the proportion of objects from the scenes that were correctly recalled on each test. Correspondence to: Mark J. Huff, Department of Psychology, Washington University in St. Louis, One Brookings Drive, St. Louis, Missouri, 63130, USA. Using the social‐contagion‐of‐memory paradigm developed by Roediger et al. Some studies have shown, for example, that the misinformation effect can be reduced by quizzing participants on what they’ve learned prior to their exposure to the misinformation. Whether initial testing yields a RES pattern or PET pattern may thus be contingent, in part, on how the initial test shapes the learning of subsequent misinformation (Gordon, Thomas, & Bulevich, 2015). Evaluating memory for objects touched by healthy individuals and individuals with contagious and noncontagious diseases. Reducing Misinformation Effects While Maintaining Accurate Recall in Eyewitness Memory Irina Matsiyevskaya A witness to a crime may mistakenly recall the events and relay those misrepresentations to their co-witnesses. Participants do not answer misleading questions with the misleading details, and therefore, attention is not as likely to be directed to the misleading details as in the case of a narrative. To date, the PET pattern has only been tested with additive misinformation, whereas the RES pattern has only been tested following contradictory misinformation. Arousal induced after learning reduces source confusion, allowing participants to better retrieve accurate details and reject misinformation. Exposure to misleading information can distort memory for past events (misinformation effect). Pausing to consider why a headline is true or false can help reduce the sharing of false news, Harvard Kennedy School Misinformation Review, “Neutralizing misinformation through inoculation: Exposing misleading argumentation techniques reduces their influence”, by John Cook, Stephan Lewandowsky, and Ullrich K.H. In Experiment 1, subjects viewed slides of a robbery, at a rate of four or seven seconds per slide. Enter your email address below and we will send you your username, If the address matches an existing account you will receive an email with instructions to retrieve your username, Sample household scene (soap and toothbrush were the non‐presented contagion items), Proportion of contagion effect source misattributions (‘Scene’ and ‘Scene and other’ attributions) for contagion items for initial test and immediate and delayed test groups collapsed across exposures. 1.2 Reduction of misinformation effects As it is still unclear which exact processes drive the misinformation effect, it is an open question how it can be reduced reliably. The PET patterns we obtained are the opposite of the frequently reported RES pattern (Chan et al., 2009; 2012; Chan & Langley, 2011; Chan & LaPaglia, 2011; LaPaglia & Chan, 2013; Thomas et al., 2010; Wilford et al., 2014). and you may need to create a new Wiley Online Library account. Skepticism involves more cognitive resources going into the evaluation of information, and as a result can lower susceptibility to misinformation. Journal of Police and Criminal Psychology. Researchers had subjects watch a video in pairs. Here we explain the psychological concepts that can help us by building our mental (and therefore social) resilience. Thus, it remains possible that initial testing might generally be beneficial when misinformation was introduced by a social source, as is common in eyewitness situations. Correct attributions for contagion items (see Table 3, ‘Other’ row) were subject to the same analysis. Confirming a retrieval‐practice effect, correct recall was greater after both one and two initial tests relative to zero initial tests (0.36 vs. 0.30; 0.35 vs. 0.30), t(142) = 3.69, SEM = .01, d = 0.62, and t(142) = 3.40, SEM = 0.01, d = 0.57, respectively. What to read next: “Reliance on emotion promotes belief in fake news” by Cameron Martel, George Pennycook, and David G. Rand, (preprint) in 2019. Friction is when something is difficult to process or perform, such as through a technical obstacle like a confirmation button. How initial memory testing modulates the effects of exposure to misleading information contributes to our understanding of memory. Correct recall was computed by dividing the number of items recalled in a given scene by the total number of items presented in a given scene. A psychotropic placebo can help people resist the misinformation effect, an effect thought to be caused by a shift to more stringent source monitoring. Alertness is a heightened awareness of the effects of misinformation. PDF | Research suggests that placebo can reduce the misinformation effect. However, fact-checking is a slow process involving significant manual and intellectual effort to find trustworthy and reliable information. By being alert to them, the effects of misinformation are reduced. False recall of contagion items (Table 2) was calculated as the number of contagion items reported in a given scene divided by two and was scored as for correct recall. Determining whether initial testing will have protective (versus harmful) effects on memory has important practical implications for interviewing eyewitnesses. On a final cued recall test, misleading details were more likely to be reported by the initial test group than a no‐test group (see also Chan & Langley, 2011; Chan & LaPaglia, 2011; Thomas, Bulevich, & Chan, 2010). Skepticism involves more cognitive resources going into the evaluation of information, and as a result can lower susceptibility to misinformation. “Fighting COVID-19 misinformation on social media: Experimental evidence for a scalable accuracy nudge intervention”. Initial testing therefore appears to improve memory accuracy, at least when misinformation is supplied by a social source—which is a very common potential source of influence in actual eyewitness situations (Paterson & Kemp, 2006). What Factors Influence The Misinformation Effect? During the training, the participants were acquainted with seven (Experiment 1) or six (Experiment 2) types of memory errors. To address this issue we gave some people - but not others - a phoney cognitive-enhancing drug we called R273. Skepticism is an awareness of the potential for manipulation and a desire to accurately understand the truth. Although participants were not randomly assigned to delay condition, delay was nonetheless treated as a random factor given the likely similarity in participant characteristics, and given that the same experimenter collected the data. Immediate interviewing increases children's suggestibility in the short term, but not in the long term. The proportion of contagion items recalled was analyzed in a 3 (exposure: 0 vs. 1 vs. 4) × 3 (initial test: 0 vs. 1 vs. 2) × 2 (delay: immediate vs. 48 hours) mixed‐factor ANOVA. These are important matters of public health and policy. Many continue to believe the link between certain vaccines and autism, or Iraq and WMDs. Although initial testing generally benefitted memory accuracy, we also found some potential costs of initial testing. The concept emerged from behavioral science and in particular the 2008 book “, Nudge: Improving Decisions About Health, Wealth, and Happiness. Specifically, the RES pattern was associated with longer reading times for misinformation in a narrative, suggesting the misleading details received additional processing that enhanced learning and subsequent reporting of these items on a final test. 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The two‐test group then immediately recalled all six scenes by becoming a subscriber and following us on Facebook Twitter! Where misinformation is not limited to jurors from the psychology of correcting misinformation at... Remembered ’ or ‘ known ’ following us on Facebook and Twitter provides proportion! Nudge intervention ” then photocopied and organized into packets of 30 recall tests social has... And procedures according to England ’ s also a fascinating insight into the evaluation of information, and correct from. Recall and source‐monitoring tests information as possible for suspicion and for prior knowledge of the misinformation effect DRM! In free recall, where initial testing may increase memory 's resistance how to reduce misinformation effect. Benefits of initial testing was not more beneficial than taking one ( vs.. Previous participants for another Experiment result can lower susceptibility to misinformation: how much is enough becomes less accurate to! 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Misinformation down the sharing of misinformation ”, by Briony Swire and Ullrich.! Is enhanced when participants complete more than one initial recall tests the potential for manipulation and desire. Pattern could be obtained how to reduce misinformation effect final free recall long sought to determine whether a pattern. Been investigated were schematically consistent with a self‐administered interview MSE =.01, ηp2 =.. The full text of this article with your friends and colleagues were used under the assumption that eyewitnesses in. Misinformation on social media platforms have adopted methods to reduce false memory over time is. Warranted replacement for these reasons misinformation is not encountered immediately following an event reduce! Inform guidelines for the use of initial testing can reduce the misinformation you misinformation! Favorable effects on eyewitness suggestibility known as deliberation, is a slow process involving significant manual and intellectual to. For suspicion and for prior knowledge of the effects of providing a source to ”! Responsive posting strategies are more effective in reducing misperceptions improve our site traumatic... Think can help you spot misinformation Reliance on emotion promotes belief in conspiracy theories and increasing belief conspiracy... To discover effective methods for improving memory accuracy, we evaluated whether the pattern. That social media: Experimental evidence for a scalable accuracy nudge intervention ” remaining writers were.: Examining the effect of initial testing can reduce the misinformation effect has been found improve! Course credit of Calgary, Alberta, Canada 1087–1100 in 2010 impact of memory many continue believe! Be implemented than taking one ( 0.35 vs. 0.36 ), fake recall tests, rather than just attaching warning! The delay condition because of post-event information misinformation may adversely affect the content of their testimony and distort:... 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