Lumby, J. The Leadership Quarterly, 7(2), 163187. & Elmes He also insisted that the complex creation of culture was the result of multiple inputs from staff, learners and the wider community. , Processes and structures designed for a time that has passed are no longer appropriate in a rapidly changing society. The GLOBE project was undertaken in a business context. and 'learning school'; and contacts with leading experts in this area of work which led to identification of additional literature. Diversity and the demands of leadership. Prasad We would also suggest that pupils, although seldom asked, would hold . As we shall demonstrate later in the chapter, it is getting to understand these values and beliefs that is a critical first step for educational leaders in developing the skills to manage, develop and evolve culture in their school. One of the best known divisions was by Stoll and Fink (2000), which distinguishes mobile, . Informa UK Limited, an Informa Group Company Home | About RHO | Collections It enriches the theory related to school culture and the research findings that have been identified in the Western settings. She argues that a school's culture 'is shaped by the history, context, and the people in it ' (p. . If alternatively, culture is viewed as multiple, unstable, persistently contested, reflecting the differing perspectives and power of individuals and groups, changing the culture of a school is a different kind of endeavor. In Heck, R. We will explore the concept of school culture from the perspective of teacher subcultures and the categories devised by Dalin and Stoll & Fink We will relate issues on school culture to your placement school We will develop an appreciation for how important school culture is in the process of curriculum change Teacher subculture can be based on: London: Sage. Fink, D. Bush, T. Despite the widespread acknowledgement that culture varies considerably and that leadership preparation and development could be adjusted in relation to the culturally embedded ontological, epistemological and axiological differences between cultures, the content, method of delivery and assessment of preparation and development shows relatively little variation throughout the world (Bush & Jackson, 2002). Improving. New York: Teachers College Press. The Australian Principals Centre: A model for the accreditation and professional development of the principalship. Subordinates expect superiors to act autocratically. The paper reviews the literature on 'what works' in school improvement taken from a number of sourcesfrom effective schools studies, from accounts by headteachers who have turned schools around. . International Journal of Leadership in Education, 4(4), 293296. M. Cultures which are comfortable with hierarchy or with the co-creation of knowledge may find affinities with process modes. Bennett ), Effective educational leadership (pp. Qiang, H. Conceptualizing the schools culture through such a systems approach helps clarify the challenges for school leaders in relation to culture. The (racially neutral) politics of education: a critical race Theory perspective. & (2003). In previous papers we have described the evolution of this project in detail (Stoll and Fink, 1988, 1989a, 1989b, Fink and Stoll, 1992). R. Creating this culture of change by constantly challenging the status quo is a contact sport involving hard, labor-intensive work and a lot of time. (2004). , , Cultures consequences: management in Saudi Arabia. Deal, T. Decisions to encourage acceptance or critique of the dominant culture and its effect lie at the moral heart of supporting the education of leaders. , In the opening chapter to this section of the Handbook, Fink and Stoll review the contemporary field of educational change and ask why educational change is so difficult to understand and achieve in present times. Paul, J. , While awareness of and reflection on hegemonic theory may be of use, its global dominance in preparation and development seems inappropriate on a number of grounds. , The Shopping Mall High School: Winners and Losers in the Educational Marketplace; National Association of Secondary School Principals (U.S.); National Association of Independent Schools. International Journal for Leadership in Education, 4(4), 401414. Culture is the set of beliefs, values and behaviors, both explicit and implicit, which underpin an organization and provide the basis of action and decision making, and is neatly summarized as the way we do things around here. Cross-cultural issues in development of leaders. However, Lumby et al. These may be through processes of exclusion or processes of inclusion, resulting in a relatively homogeneous or diverse student body, but in either case the outcome will be a pupil profile which reflects a particular set of cultural characteristics. The former has received very little and the latter a good deal more attention (Gronn, 2001; Heck, 1996). (2004). Such simple categorizations provide briefly interesting analytical tools to assist school leaders in gaining an initial understanding of their school culture, but are of limited wider utility. , (2001). ), Managing the Organizational Melting Pot: Dilemmas of Workplace Diversity (pp. In a strict sense we might argue that the culture of every educational institution is unique, derived from the context in which the school operates and the values of those who have led or been part of the organization over time. Trond (2007). Walker, A. , & Archer (1996, p. 1) contends that the notion of culture remains inordinately vague to the extent that poverty of conceptualization leads to culture being grasped rather than analysed. According to Mortimore (1991), a lot of improvement efforts have failed because research results were not translated adequately into guidelines for educational practice. (Ed.). (Hoppe, 2004, p. 333), a set of shared values and preferred actions among members of a society that largely determines among other things, the boundaries within which leader development is possible. Hothouse culture exists where the pressure is to high academic achievement, typically in response to government or parental pressure to deliver high quality examination results. International Journal of Leadership in Education, 8(3), 207221. Leaders interact with culture at the organizational level both in terms of efforts to include the multiple cultures which may be present and also to sustain, adapt or change the dominant culture. | Cookies typology of Rosenholtz (1989) differentiates static and dynamic school culture. Nor is it amoral. Bottery, M. As a second exemplar, in China the millennia long influence of Confucianism has led to a compliance culture, the impact of this cultural norm being a tendency to see change as an event rather than a process (Hallinger, 2001, p. 67). Their typology distinguishes club, role, task and person cultures in organizations, and enables a simple analysis of the dominant cultural themes within a school or a team. Preparing head teachers to respond to these challenges will be a significant challenge, therefore, and this is a focus later in the chapter. International Journal for Leadership in Education, 7(2),127146. UCEA. Such reculturing (Fullan, 2001) is perhaps the biggest challenge to school leaders, though, for it will certainly generate conflict, contradiction and destabilization as part of the process as DiPaola (2003, p. 153) has indicated: Similarly, Bajunid (1996, p. 56) argues that the richness of Islamic teaching is absent from concepts of leadership. (Eds. School culture . In parallel, preparation and development sometimes include an element of raising awareness of cultures deemed to be other than that of the majority or the dominant group, what Stier (2003, p. 84) refers to as content-competencies, generally targeted at increasing knowledge of minority groups within the region or nation. Where preparation and development engage at all with culture, the current prevalence of content-competencies (Stier, 2003, p. 84) does not begin to equip leaders with the skills needed to relate to exogenous and endogenous cultures. This is but one element of the interplay of competing values, priorities and hierarchies of power which influence culture. & A more extensive discussion of the variation in culture and practice internationally is offered by Foskett & Lumby (2003) and Lumby et al. Cultures Consequences, Comparing Values, Behaviors, Institutions, and Organizations Across Nations (2nd ed.). Pupils, staff and school leaders have an on-going engagement with external stakeholders, from parents, to neighbors, to employers, to the media, and every one of those interactions conveys a message about the culture of the school and its underpinning values. Effects of cultural diversity on in-class communication and student project team dynamics: Creating synergy in the diverse classroom. 330). Subordinates expect superiors to act autocratically. (2007). Bush Hanges The study identifies how cultural literacy amongst the principals of the schools is a key element of the positive achievements they report. (2004). Farrar, E. These elements are but the tangible appearance of the underpinning set of values and beliefs, which shape the intended outcomes of the educational enterprise within a school. El Nemr, M. , (1997). At the operational scale, the leader may focus on the culture within the institution in order to facilitate the achievement of institutional improvement, with culture conceptualized as an agent of change. (2004), Understanding valuation processes; exploring the linkage between motivation and action. What we mean by the term culture is both argued to be generally understood (Lumby, Walker, Bryant, Bush & Bjork, forthcoming) and suggested not to be understood, misunderstood or so variously understood as to be verging on meaningless. Once the inputs are understood and the intended outputs identified, the major challenge for the school leader is then to organize and operationalize the processes within the school to enable pupils to travel from their cultural starting point to the output position the school seeks to achieve. Ribbins Secondly, investigations of the cultural fit of transmission and process models of learning would support those responsible for design in making more appropriate choices. Conference of the Commonwealth Council for Educational Administration and Management, Collard, J. The discourse of diversity: from biology to management. None is universally applicable or comprehensive, but all can serve to support an educational leaders reflection on the culture of a specific school. All leadership development has embedded cultural values. Bjerke and Al-Meer (1993, p. 31) suggest that in the Arab world: While there is extensive research on the implications of assessment modes on school learners, including the relationship of assessment to variables such as gender and ethnicity, no similar body of research informs how we understand the assessment of leaders. A. Cincinnati: South Western. Commentary. The identification of the relevant culture and the group to which it is appropriate is predicated on the notion that humans can be classified, that a specific culture can be assigned to those in a particular geographic area or sharing a particular characteristic such as gender, language, ethnic background or religion. In contrast the assessment of educational leaders often assumes that consideration of cultural fit is unnecessary in relation to standards which are uncritically accepted as international. Stoll and Fink (1996) created a typology of five types of school culture: moving (dynamic and successful determination to keep developing), cruising (rather complacent, often with privileged learners who achieve despite little school dynamism), strolling (neither particularly effective or ineffective, but long term not keeping pace with change), struggling (ineffective but trying to address issues), and finally sinking (ineffective and not improving). However, these may be taken-for-granted, and only apparent to those designing and delivering development when a lack of fit is pointed out by specific groups. & House, R. However, such a perspective ignores the ability of schools to select many of the cultural inputs. & (2005). The project established 21 common perceived effective leadership attributes and behaviors within the 57 participating nations, providing evidence of widespread assumptions about leadership. A welfarist culture, alternatively, emphasizes the individual needs of pupils. Educational leadership: an Islamic perspective. Powell, Farrar and Cohen (1985) used research from fifteen high schools to depict a culture of easy and uncritical acceptance of underachievement. There have, of course, been many more attempts to categorize school cultures, each offering a particular perspective to illuminate the nature and effects of culture. 5167). & Hooijberg, R. & Bajunid (1996, p. 52) argued over a decade ago that in Malaysia there is an urgent need to inspire, motivate and work with relevant and meaningful concepts that the locals are at home and familiar with and to free educational leadership and management from the intellectual domination of Greco-Roman, Christian, Western intellectual traditions (1996, p. 63). Cultural complexity offers only multiple complications in assessing fit, not safe generalized conclusions. (Eds. Duignan, P. Another output lies in the cultural characteristics and values of the young people who are the product of the school once they have completed their time there. And, of course, the selection of principals by governors, education boards or regional/national education authorities is a key mechanism through which the cultural inputs to a school will be strongly controlled. Sapre, P. Bajunid, I. E. V. Velsor, E. V. The values they espouse or eschew, the aspirations and achievements they have, and their contribution to communities (local, regional, national), whether positive or negative are the cultural product of the school. , Schein, E. H. Online publication date: May 2009, Print ISBN: 9780415988476 Wong, K-C. Culture also impacts on delivery. London: Paul Chapman. She challenges whether any classification of humans is tenable in the light of increasing certainty deriving from advances in natural science that whatever taxonomy is adopted, the complexity of human beings, biologically, linguistically and culturally, cannot be placed into easily described categories: I refer students to this publication for new research articles or for my work, Acquisition of this publication will benefit department, faculty and student needs, I am a member of the publication's editorial board and strongly support the publication. International Journal of Educational Management, 5(3), 45. Research has shown the principal to be a significant factor in school effectiveness (Hallinger & Heck, 1999). (1996). Curricula and delivery which are founded on a set of cultural assumptions, even those which are dominant within the region or country, are likely to miss the mark for many. Sparrow, P. Bush, T. Instead there are history, context, process, interactivity, power relations and change. I am a member of the publication's editorial board and strongly support the publication, Authored by: There are no essential, innate and immutable characteristics of race, age, gender, disability or other demographic categories. School Effectiveness and School Improvement. The political perspective would see educational leaders as seeking to generate in their pupils and staff a critical view of society, to challenge existing orthodoxies and to become citizens able to participate in social and cultural change. There is also a preference to face facts whether positive or negative. Processual competencies, comprising intrapersonal competencies and cognitive competencies (2003, p.84), are also needed. Leadership and Organization Development Journal, 14(1), 3035. Skip to page content. Leadership for a new century; authenticity, intentionality, spirituality and sensibility. ing the micropolitic and the school culture as key components to study school improvement . . (1990). M. Sarason, S. G, Crow Homogeneity or diversity is the organization more effective when it is characterized by diversity or homogeneity? A. As a consequence, leaders must be equipped to work with both imported as well as indigenous culture. In Saudi Arabia a command system is accepted by culture and tradition and schools have, in any case, little power to take decisions. , & Cross-cultural understandings of leadership: themes from Native American interviews. In Salaman We present here a small number of examples in order to illustrate a range of typologies. The key issue, of course, arising from globalization is that educational leaders will be faced increasingly with challenges to manage cultural change within their institution. 6886). Stoll, L. More research of this kind, exploring fit not only to the dominant culture of the nation/region, but also fit to the multiple cultures within the nation or region would provide a potentially powerful antidote to programs which are currently not culturally inclusive. Leithwood, K. L. & E. Daily challenges for school leaders.I In School leaders work within pressing cultures which sustain themselves by multiple conscious and unconscious mechanisms (Lumby with Coleman, 2007). Much leadership theory reflects Anglophone and particularly US culture which Hoppe (2004, p. 335) suggests is consistently described as being individualistic, egalitarian, performance derived, comfortable with change, and action-and-data-oriented. Watch Events 3 Live Search by typing your school, event, association. Consequently, although there is relatively little empirical data on which to draw, the issue of fit between culture and the conception, development and enactment of leadership has become a key concern. You can find out more in our Privacy Policy. These can have negative or positive dimensions the media report of the schools excellent examination results will convey a different message about the schools culture than a local reputation for rowdy behavior by the schools pupils during lunchtime breaks. Hallinger, P. Tomorrow, and tomorrow and tomorrow: a post-postmodern purview. M. It would appear that teachers have one view, government another, and various segments of the community still another. (2001). Hwang, K. K. Cartwright, M. Understanding international differences in culture would provide a basis for planning cultural fit in preparation and development programs. School culture, therefore, is most clearly seen in the ways people relate to and work together; the management of the school's structures, systems, and physical environment; and the extent to which there is a learning focus for both pupils and adults, including the nature of that focus (Stoll & Fink, 1998) or simply the distinctive identity of . as cited in Stoll, Fink & Earl, 2003, p. 132). Two distinctive views of this connection can be identified (Collard, 2006). Our intent in this paper is to provide a retrospective of the past few years to provide some helpful insights into the change process in school systems. (Eds. (Eds. Such an approach to cultural change is, of course, a key component of western approaches to educational leadership, and has been criticized for representing a fundamental misunderstanding of what culture is and can be. Zhang, J. H. Published 1996. org/10.4135/9781446219362 Keywords: Journal of Educational Administration, 34(5), 7497. In In The first relates to the ways the day-to-day operations of the school interact with the outside world. Choices will continue as culture evolves and the perspectives of all players mutate over time. International Journal for Leadership in Education, 4(4), 321332. The challenge for educational leaders is to recognize and conceptualize each of these cultural realms and understand how it impacts on and provides implications for their own school. Begley, P. , Hargreaves (1995) developed a different typological model in which he distinguishes formal, welfarist, hothouse, and survivalist school cultures based on the educational priorities of the school in the context of external market environments. Educational Management and Administration. School values were assessed by aggregating the scores of 862 students, (ages 15-19) in 32 Jewish and Arab Israeli schools (Study 1), and 1,541 students (ages 11-21) from 8 European schools and 163 teachers from 6 of these schools (Study 2), using Schwartz's Portrait Values Questionnaire. Journal of Managerial Psychology, 1(2), 95117. (1998). Lumby with Coleman (2007) identifies the emotional dimensions of rage, confusion, and anxiety in engaging with alternate cultures (DiTomaso & Hooijberg, 1996; Osler, 2004; Prasad & Mills, 1997; Rusch, 2004). We need to work in organisations, collectively developing an understanding of where they are going and what is important. Prasad Scheins model provides a greater level of sophistication by focusing on a challenging interrogation of the culture of the school and linking culture more strongly to underpinning values and beliefs. Corporate rituals: The rites and fituals of corporate life. The aim is to encourage leaders to address obliviousness to their own culture and challenge approaches which may inappropriately embed a single culture and/or a culture alien to some participants. Stier insists that the latter cannot be achieved by content competencies alone. & Wisdom gained, wisdom given: instituting PBL in a Chinese culture. , Preparation and development programs therefore face a twofold challenge: In the next section we shall examine the issues of culture and leadership preparation and development. Spicing it op: Blending perspectives of leadership and cultural values from Hispanic American and African American women scholars. , How principals manage ethnocultural diversity: Learnings from three countries. However culture is often defined in broad general terms as, for example, the way we do things around here (Deal & Kennedy, 1982), obscuring complex and contested conceptualizations. & Bajunid., 2005; Sapre & Ranade, 2001; Walker, 2006; Wong, 2001), and faith (Shah, 2006). Hoppe (2004) suggests that experiential learning proves enjoyable and effective for US leaders while French and German leaders often view this approach as time-wasting childs play (p. 353). Walnut Elementary 625 N. Walnut St. La Habra, CA 90631 Phone: 562-690-2369. In Cultural diversity and group work effectiveness. (1971). Chan, B. Firstly, it examines key theoretical models and perspectives on culture. & What is the significance of time is the organization most oriented towards the past, the present or the future? (2005). It has 525 students in grades 9-12 with a student-teacher ratio of 13 to 1. In relation to leader preparation and development culture has been framed largely as an issue of diffusion, particularly of Western values and practice applied to the development of leaders in all parts of the globe (Leithwood & Duke, 1998). G. Find Washington Middle School test scores, student-teacher ratio, parent reviews and teacher stats. (1996). Hallinger, P. (2003). Two typologies are developed. Certainly it would be helpful to undertake an educational equivalent of the GLOBE project (House et al., 2004) and to establish the education leadership attributes and behaviors that are held in common across a large number of nations and those elements that are culturally contingent. (2003). Heck, R. Cultural differences can be observed at a range of organizational scales. They may also tackle the issue of how culture can be managed. , & Creating this culture of change by constantly challenging the status quo is a contact sport involving hard, labor-intensive work and a lot of time. Kennedy, A. Bjerke, B. For example, 86% of the worldwide variance on individualism-collectivism and 70% of variance across power-distance are found in Europe (Sparrow & Hiltrop, 1998, p. 73). | How to buy Aitken, R. House, R. J. Goddard, T. However, boundaries are permeable. & Leadership and intercultural dynamics. (2001). A person in charge is not required. Its view of the nature of human relationships are people essentially collaborative or competitive, do they function best in groups or as individuals? Lopez, G. R. Dorfman, P. W. (1998). Throughout the world a great deal of effort and money has been expended in the name of educational change. Bryant (1998) suggests that as a consequence school leadership as conceived in the US is unlikely to be appropriate to Native American educational leaders whose culture and consequent conception of leadership is very different. Similarly, Louque (2002) challenges the appropriateness of the culture embedded in the selection and development of educational leaders to Hispanic and African American Women. The typology tool was first developed in 1997 as a hands-on, practical method of defining for discussion purposes a school's stage or type of culture. Hallinger (2001, p. 65) suggests that the primary purpose of schooling is the onward transmission of established culture and values between generations. House, R. J. Bottery (1999) has described this as managerial globalization, in which the adoption of western managerialist approaches and business-based forms of accountability underpins educational reform and development. The purpose of this book is to re-orient the current agenda in education towards learning. Fullan (2001) has suggested that recognizing the need for, and understanding the processes involved in, cultural change are essential tools of leadership development, for it is in establishing a culture of change in school that successful school development can occur. eBook ISBN: 9780203872239 Adobe Louque, A. From the approach adopted for teaching and learning, to the cultural values espoused in the pastoral and ethical functions of the school, to the relative value ascribed to possible destinations for pupils beyond school, the fabric of school life will be imbued by these cultural processes. (Hoppe, 2004, p. 333). , (2001). International Journal for Leadership in Education, 4(4), 367381. DiTomaso, N. As Foskett and Lumby (2003, p. 8) indicate: At the exogenous level, there appears to be widespread cultural homogeneity implicit in leadership development; that is, whether explicitly acknowledged or not, development is underpinned by some degree of belief in leadership as an invariable activity (Walker & Walker, 1998; Bhindi & Duignan, 1997): this despite recognition that even the word leader has very different connotations in different cultures (House, 2004). Crossing the great divides: problems of cultural diffusion for leadership in education. The attempt to mould culture in any direction involves alignment with some and challenge to others. Tuition is $13,400 for the highest grade offered. We consider later in this chapter the implications of this for the professional development of lead-ers within educational institutions. . ), Handbook of Leadership Development (pp. , International Studies in Educational Administration. A. The processes of globalization have been a significant feature of all dimensions of society and economy over the last three decades.
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